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Final Remarks

Through this exhibition, we explored the theme of secularisation, and the increasing reliance on science as a source of knowledge. This transformation of belief systems is revealed by our objects. On the one hand, the 6th century BC Mesopotamian mudbrick commemorated the great achievements of Nebuchadnezzar II and the power of the god of Babylon, Marduk. Nowhere are the names of  engineers and builders mentioned. On the contrary, in 19th century Czech Republic, a family gets praise and recognition for their individual scientific skills in creating glass-models of squids. This example shows that over time the focus of public reverence shifted in part from sacred figures to the academic elite. Additionally, we can see that because of secularisation, faith and religious texts were no longer the only sources of expertise. Biological knowledge and the use of real-life specimens became the methodological tools to understand the world as demonstrated by the success of the Czech glass models.

 

Nevertheless, the shift from religion to science was not black and white, and they often complemented each other. Like Hildegard von Bingen, some clergymen relied on observation to understand the world and they made accurate descriptions of animals or anatomical drawings. Furthermore, academics and artists were inspired by religion: Leonardo da Vinci made scientific instruments and anatomical drawings with sacred significance like the Vitruvian Man. He also painted many religious scenes.

 

Moreover, we intended to show that there should be no division and hierarchy between science and religion: science sometimes becomes a kind of dogma, leading to the denial or fabrication of evidence. The Piltdown skull is a great example of the long-lasting dangers of excessive scientific fervour: it was only exposed as a forgery after more than forty years. This can be contrasted with the fact that some scientists were aware that their new faith in science needed to be legitimised by facts. As Mendeleev stated “Do not take anything for granted; be constantly alert to the need for verification….Science knows no final truths” (as translated from Russian by Vucinich, 1967:343). Mendeleev’s factual and skeptical approach to science is common to the scientific community nowadays. At least in Europe, science has gained prominence alongside religious beliefs. Most European religious institutions do not try to impede the diffusion of knowledge by academics. For instance, in 1966 the index librorum prohibitum, the Vatican’s institution which used to forbid non-scriptural books, was abolished.

 

We chose to focus the exhibition on exploring secularisation in Europe, as most of our objects originated there. To add a only few token objects to represent other geographical areas would be insufficient to capture such a broad and complex process in highly varied cultures across the globe. Additionally we found that, religion is statistically in decline in Europe. For example, in Greece, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Czech Republic and Sweden, people born in the 1970s and 1980’s are not as religious than those born in the 1920s or 30s. The younger people pray much less and don’t attend Mass very often (Voas, 2009: 165). However, we should keep in mind that science did not replace religion: in 1649, Claude Mellan engraved the portrait of the Christ and, nowadays, there still are many contemporary representations of the Christ. Finally, though the religious cult and practices diminished through time, it is much more difficult to establish that religious beliefs declined.

 

It is also worthy to note that five of the seven objects in our exhibition are currently in UCL collections. The theme of secularisation is particularly of relevance to UCL as an institution, as its founding principles were guided by equality of education regardless of race, class, or religion. The objects in UCL’s collections were also mainly collected or donated for the purpose of education. A point of consideration is also how even highly religious objects in the UCL collections would be for an educational purpose, thus reinforcing the idea of secularisation through the increasing influence of academia.


Through this exhibition, we acknowledged that secularisation is a historical process which took place over centuries, especially in Europe. However, we argue that this was not a linear development and that our objects show how much both religion and science are essential aspects of the human culture and experience in our contemporary society.

Object Lessons

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Ethical Considerations

We have previously addressed the sensitivity of our theme, however, we  also had to deal with specific ethical issues surrounding some of our objects.

 

The Sudarium of Saint Veronica is an example of the potential problems with objects of religious significance. We argued that this representation of Christ by Claude Mellan (1649)  was more admired as an artwork than revered as a religious object. In the middle of the 17th century there were many doubts about the authenticity of the story depicted on the engraving, i.e. the 13th century dogma that Veronica wiped the face of Christ ( Sudarium means “handkerchief”). Consequently, Claude Mellan’s work was mostly praised for the technical value of the engraving. We hope that the focus on the artistic nature of the object would not offend Christian communities. We acknowledge that in contradiction with the International Council of Museums (ICOM) Code of Ethics, we did not ask any religious group about the way they feel about the display of the Sudarium.

 

Additionally, we had an issue with the 6th century BC Mesopotamian Mudbrick. It was probably found in the surroundings of Babylon but we can’t identify the town with certitude. We know that it was acquired by UCL in 1944 and only recorded in the database in 1947. The mudbrick is preserved in a box of Japanese ammunitions, accompanied by a Russian label. Therefore, the provenance and acquisition process of the mudbrick are unclear. According to the ICOM Code of Ethics “Museums should avoid displaying or otherwise using material of questionable origin or lacking provenance. They should be aware that such displays or usage can be seen to condone and contribute to the illicit trade in cultural property.” (ICOM Code of Ethics, 2013, 4.5). We certainly don’t want to encourage illegal looting of cultural heritage in this exhibition despite the non-compliance with this code.

 

And yet,  this mudbrick poses an even greater problem: should UCL repatriate it if Iraq asked for it? According to the ICOM, it would be more ethical to do so, knowing that “When a country or people of origin seeks the restitution of an object or specimen that can be demonstrated to have been exported or otherwise transferred in violation of the principles of international and national conventions, and shown to be part of that country’s or people’s cultural or natural heritage, the museum concerned should, if legally free to do so, take prompt and responsible steps to cooperate in its return” (ICOM Code of Ethics, 2013: 6.3). The definition is very vague and its seems fairly easy to argue that any object was stolen and is part of a national heritage. However, some entire museums could then be emptied of all their content, for instance the UCL Petrie Museum. There is no simple answer to such an issue. Nonetheless, in the case of heritage from Iraq, it may be risky to repatriate the mudbrick: an emergency plan has been launched by the UNESCO in 2014 to address the frequent lootings and destruction of cultural heritage in the country (UNESCO, 2014). It would be inconsistent and illogical to, on the one hand, condemn the illicit traffic of cultural heritage and, on the other end, to repatriate stolen objects in a country where there is a risk that  they would be stolen and illegally exchanged again.

Sources and Further Reading

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Thomas Kador for his precious help and comments, as well as the PGTAs for having drawn our attention to useful sources. We would also like to thank Helen Chatterjee and the UCL museum curators for their help with our objects: Ian Carroll (UCL Institute of Archaeology), Nicholas Booth (UCL Science and Engineering Collection), Alwyn Davies (UCL Chemistry), George Richards (UCL Art Museum), Paolo Viscardi (UCL Grant Museum of Zoology), Suzanna White (UCL Institute of Archaeology).

Updated on 20 March 2016 at 15:28; 409 page visits from 16 March 2016 at 15:59 to 8 November 2024 at 23:51